Ronald Wilson Reagan.html |
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Ronald Reagan
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| In office January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989 |
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| Vice President | George H. W. Bush |
| Preceded by | Jimmy Carter |
| Succeeded by | George H. W. Bush |
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| In office January 3, 1967 – January 7, 1975 |
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| Lieutenant | Robert Finch (1967–1969) Ed Reinecke (1969–1974) John L. Harmer (1974–1975) |
| Preceded by | Edmund G. "Pat" Brown, Sr. |
| Succeeded by | Edmund G. "Jerry" Brown, Jr. |
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| Born | February 6, 1911 Tampico, Illinois |
| Died | June 5, 2004 (aged 93) Bel Air, Los Angeles, California |
| Birth name | Ronald Wilson Reagan |
| Nationality | American |
| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse | (1) Jane Wyman (married 1940, divorced 1948) (2) Nancy Davis (married 1952) |
| Children | Maureen Reagan Christine Reagan Michael Reagan (adopted) Patti Reagan Ron Reagan |
| Alma mater | Eureka College |
| Occupation | Actor |
| Religion | Baptized Disciples of Christ, later attended Presbyterian churches |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Service/branch | United States Army United States Army Air Force |
| Rank | Captain |
Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the fortieth President of the United States (1981–1989) and the thirty-third Governor of California (1967–1975). Born in Illinois, Reagan moved to Los Angeles, California in the 1930s, where he was an actor, president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), and a spokesman for General Electric (GE). His start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, he switched to the Republican Party in 1962, at the age of 51. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and election in 1980.
As president, Reagan implemented bold new political and economic initiatives. His supply-side economic policies, dubbed "Reaganomics," included deregulation and substantial tax cuts implemented in 1981. In his first term he survived an assassination attempt, took a hard line against organized labor, and ordered military actions in Grenada. He was reelected in a landslide in 1984. Reagan's second term was primarily marked by foreign matters, namely the ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the revelation of the Iran-Contra affair. The president had previously ordered a massive military buildup in an arms race with the Soviet Union, forgoing the strategy of détente. He publicly described the USSR as an "evil empire" and supported anti-Communist movements worldwide. He negotiated with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, resulting in the INF Treaty and the decrease of both countries' nuclear arsenals.
Reagan left office in 1989; in 1994 the former president disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease earlier in the year and died ten years later at the age of ninety-three. He ranks highly among former U.S. presidents in terms of approval rating.
Early life
Ronald Reagan was born in an apartment above the local bank building in Tampico, Illinois on February 6, 1911 to John "Jack" Reagan and Nelle Wilson Reagan.1 As a boy, Reagan's father nicknamed him "Dutch," due to his "fat little Dutchman"-like appearance, and his "Dutchboy" haircut;2 the nickname stuck with Ronald throughout his youth.2 Reagan's family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg and Chicago, until 1919, when they returned to Tampico and lived above the H.C. Pitney Variety Store.31 After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, Reagan would quip that he was "living above the store again."4
According to Paul Kengor, author of God and Ronald Reagan, Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people, which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother, Nelle,5 and the Disciples of Christ faith,5 which he was baptized into in 1922.6 When Reagan was 11, his mother gave him the book That Printer of Udell's and he said that the book inspired him to become an evangelical Christian; at age 66 Reagan said that the book "left an abiding belief in the triumph of good over evil."73 For the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning.8
Following the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920, the Reagans moved to Dixon;9 the midwestern "small universe" had a lasting impression on Ronald.10 He attended Dixon High School,11 where he developed interests in acting, sports, and storytelling.12 His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park, near Dixon, in 1926. "I saved 77 lives," Reagan said in an interview, and mentioned that he notched a mark on a wooden log for every life he saved.12 After high school, Reagan attended Eureka College, where he was a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, majored in economics and sociology, and was very active in sports, including football.13
Entertainment career
- See also: Ronald Reagan filmography
Radio and film
After graduating from Eureka in 1932, Reagan drove himself to Iowa, where he auditioned for a job at many small-town radio stations.14 He got a job broadcasting University of Iowa home football games for the Hawkeyes. He was paid $10 per game.14 Soon after, a staff announcer's job opened at radio station WOC in Davenport, and Reagan was hired, now earning $100 per month.14 Due to his persuasive voice,14 he moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games.15 His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games that the station received by wire.14
While traveling with the Cubs in California, Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Brothers studios.16 His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air, and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films.17 Before the film Santa Fe Trail in 1940, he played the role of George "The Gipper" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American; from it, he acquired the lifelong nickname "the Gipper."18 Reagan's favorite acting role was in 1942's Kings Row,19 but his performance did not meet with universal approval: one reviewer felt that Reagan had made "only casual acquaintance with the [character]."20 Reagan also acted in Tennessee's Partner, Hellcats of the Navy, This Is the Army, Dark Victory, Bedtime for Bonzo, Cattle Queen of Montana, and The Killers (his final film) in a 1964 remake.21
He spent the majority of his Hollywood career in the "B film" division, where, Reagan joked, the producers "didn't want them good, they wanted them Thursday."14 While often overshadowed by more famous actors, Reagan's films did receive many good reviews.14
Military service
After completing fourteen home-study Army Extension Courses, Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve22 on April 29, 1937, as a private assigned to Troop B, 322nd Cavalry at Des Moines, Iowa.23 He was appointed Second Lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the Cavalry on May 25, 1937, and on June 18 was assigned to the 323rd Cavalry.24
Reagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18, 1942. Due to his nearsightedness, he was classified for limited service only, which excluded him from serving overseas.25 His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason, California, as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office.26 Upon the approval of the Army Air Force (AAF), he applied for a transfer from the Cavalry to the AAF on May 15, 1942, and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the 1st Motion Picture Unit (officially, the "18th AAF Base Unit")in Culver City, California.26 On January 14, 1943 he was promoted to First Lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is The Army at Burbank, California.26 He returned to the 1st Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to Captain on July 22, 1943.23
In January 1944, Captain Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the sixth War Loan Drive. He was re-assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit on November 14, 1944, where he remained until the end of World War II.23 He was recommended for promotion to Major on February 2, 1945, but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year.27 He returned to Fort MacArthur, California, where he was separated from active duty on December 9, 1945.27 By the end of the war, his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF.23
SAG president and television
Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941, serving as an alternate. Following World War II, he resumed service and became 3rd Vice president in 1946.28 The adoption of conflict-of-interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected.28 He would subsequently be chosen by the membership to seven additional one-year terms, from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959.28 Reagan led SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor-management disputes, the Taft-Hartley Act, House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era.28
In 1947, as SAG president, Reagan testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee regarding the influence of communists in the motion picture industry.29 Strongly opposed to communism, he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles, stating, "As a citizen, I would hesitate to see any political party outlawed on the basis of its political ideology. However, if it is proven that an organization is an agent of foreign power, or in any way not a legitimate political party—and I think the government is capable of proving that—then that is another matter... But at the same time I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged, by either fear or resentment of this group, that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment."29
Though an early critic of television, Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and decided to join the medium.14 He was hired as the host of General Electric Theater, a series of weekly dramas that became very popular.14 His contract required him to tour GE plants ten weeks out of the year, often demanding of him fourteen speeches per day.14 He earned approximately $125,000 per year (about $1,000,000 in 2008 dollars) in this role. His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days.21
Marriages and children
Jane Wyman
In 1938, Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman (1917–2007). They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre,30 and married on January 26, 1940, at the Wee Kirk o' the Heather church in Glendale, California.31 Together they had two children, Maureen (1941–2001) and Christine (born June 26, 1947; died June 27, 1947), and adopted a third, Michael (born 1945).32 Following arguments about Reagan's political ambitions, Wyman filed for divorce in 1948,33 citing a distraction due to her husband's SAG union duties; the divorce was finalized in 1949.18 making him the only U.S. president to have been divorced.34
Nancy Davis
Reagan met actress Nancy Davis (born 1921)35 in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood (she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis). She described their meeting by saying, "I don't know if it was exactly love at first sight, but it was pretty close."36 They were engaged at Chasen's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4, 1952 at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley.37 The actor William Holden served as best man at the ceremony. They had two children: Patti (born 1952) and Ron (born 1958).
Observers described the Reagans' relationship as close, real, and intimate.38 During his presidency they were reported as frequently displaying their affection for one another; one press secretary said, "They never took each other for granted. They never stopped courting."3639 He often called her "Mommy"; she called him "Ronnie."39 He once wrote to her, "whatever I treasure and enjoy... all would be without meaning if I didn’t have you."40 When he was in the hospital after the assassination attempt in 1981, she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent.41 In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994, Reagan wrote "I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's disease... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience,"36 and in 1998, while he was severely affected by Alzheimer's, Nancy told Vanity Fair, "Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it's true. It did. I can't imagine life without him."36
Early political career
A registered Democrat and admirer of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Reagan supported the New Deal.42 By the early 1950s, Reagan began to shift rightwards out of a desire for a more limited federal government,42 endorsing presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960.43 In his position with General Electric, Reagan was required to tour GE plants and give speeches. Often, these speeches were politically motivated and held a conservative, pro-business message.42 He wrote his own speeches, laboring diligently and daily upon his prose. Although he had speechwriters later in the White House, he continued editing, and even occasionally writing, many of his speeches.44 Eventually, the speeches became too controversial for the company's liking, and Reagan was fired by General Electric in 1962.42 Reagan formally switched to the Republican Party that same year, saying "I didn't leave the Democratic Party. The party left me."45
Reagan opposed certain civil rights legislation, although he later reversed his opposition to voting rights and fair housing laws. His opposition to such laws was based on his preference for small government and states' rights. He strongly denied having racist motives.
Two years after switching parties, Reagan joined the campaign of conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater. Speaking on Goldwater's behalf, Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government. He revealed his ideological motivation in a famed speech given on October 27, 1964: "The Founding Fathers knew a government can't control the economy without controlling people. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose. So we have come to a time for choosing."46 The speech raised $1 million for Goldwater's campaign,14 and soon became known as the "Time for Choosing" speech. It is considered the event that launched Reagan's political career.47
Governor of California, 1967–1975
California Republicans were impressed with Reagan's political views and charisma after his "Time for Choosing" speech,48 and nominated him for Governor of California in 1966. In Reagan's campaign, he emphasized two main themes: "to send the welfare bums back to work," and in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley, "to clean up the mess at Berkeley."49 He was elected, defeating two-term governor Edmund G. "Pat" Brown, and was sworn in on January 3, 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget.50
Shortly after the beginning of his term, Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement, hoping to cut into Nixon's Southern support51 and be a compromise candidate52 if neither Nixon nor second-place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention. However, by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes, 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination, followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place.51
Reagan was involved in high-profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era. On May 15, 1969, during the People's Park protests at UC Berkeley, Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests, in an incident that became known as "Bloody Thursday."5354 Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks in order to crack down on the protesters.53 When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor, Reagan joked, "It's just too bad we can't have an epidemic of botulism."55
Early in 1967, the national debate on abortion was beginning. Democratic California state senator Anthony Beilenson introduced the "Therapeutic Abortion Act," in an effort to reduce the number of "back-room abortions" performed in California.53 The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan's desk where, after many days of indecision, he signed it.56 About two million abortions would be performed as a result, most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well-being of the mother.56 Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill, and stated that had he been more experienced as governor, it would not have been signed. After he recognized what he called the "consequences" of the bill, he announced that he was pro-life.56 He maintained that position later in his political career, writing extensively about abortion.57
Despite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in 1968,58 Reagan was re-elected in 1970, defeating "Big Daddy" Jesse Unruh. He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment, which he strongly supported.19 His efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision, which invalidated all death sentences issued in California prior to 1972, though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on April 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitchell's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin's gas chamber.59
Reagan's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president. By campaigning on a platform of sending "the welfare bums back to work," he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state. He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy, including that of undue federal taxation.60
1976 presidential campaign
In 1976, Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party's candidate for president. Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate with the support of like-minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union which became key components of his political base, while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican.61
Reagan's campaign relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to seriously damage the lift-off of Ford's campaign, such as his victories in North Carolina, Texas, and California, but the strategy disintegrated.62 Reagan ended up losing New Hampshire and later Florida.63 As the party's 1976 convention in Kansas City, Missouri neared, Ford appeared close to victory. Acknowledging his party's moderate wing, Reagan chose moderate Republican Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate. Nonetheless, Ford narrowly won, with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070.63
Reagan's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Although he lost the nomination, Reagan received 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's ballot, and a single electoral vote from a Washington State "faithless elector" in the November election,64 in which Ford lost to the Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter.
1980 presidential campaign
The 1980 presidential campaign between Reagan and incumbent President Jimmy Carter was conducted during domestic concerns as well as the ongoing Iran hostage crisis. His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles: lower taxes to stimulate the economy,65 less government interference in peoples' lives,66 states' rights,67 and a strong national defense.66
After receiving the Republican nomination, he selected one of his primary opponents, George H.W. Bush, to be his running mate. His showing in the October televised debates boosted his campaign. Reagan won the election, carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 electoral votes for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). Reagan won 50.7% of the popular vote while Carter took 41%, and Independent John B. Anderson (a liberal Republican) received 6.7%.68 Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952, and gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority.
Presidency, 1981–1989
During his Presidency, Ronald Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom, brought changes domestically, both to the U.S. economy and expanded military, and contributed to the end of the Cold War.69 The "Reagan Revolution," proponents claimed, would reinvigorate American morale and reduce the people's reliance upon government.69 As president, Reagan kept a series of diaries in which he commented about daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on current issues, frequently mentioning his wife, Nancy. The diaries were published in May 2007 in the bestselling book, The Reagan Diaries.70
First term, 1981–1985
To date, Reagan is the oldest man elected to the office of the presidency.71 In his first inaugural address on January 20, 1981, which Reagan himself wrote,72 he addressed the country's economic malaise arguing: "Government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem."
The Reagan Presidency began in a dramatic manner: as Reagan was giving his inaugural address, 52 U.S. hostages, held by Iran for 444 days were set free.73
Assassination attempt
On March 30, 1981, Reagan, along with his press secretary James Brady and two others, were shot by a would-be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr. Missing Reagan’s heart by less than one inch74, the bullet instead pierced his left lung.74 He began coughing up blood in the limousine and was rushed to George Washington University Hospital, where it was determined that his lung had collapsed;74 he endured emergency surgery to remove the bullet.75 In the operating room, Reagan joked to the surgeons, "I hope you're all Republicans!"76 Though they were not, Joseph Giordano replied, "Today, Mr. President, we're all Republicans."
The bullet was removed and the surgery was deemed a success.75 It was later determined, however, that the president's life had been in serious danger due to rapid blood loss and severe breathing difficulties.77 He was able to turn the grave situation into a more light-hearted one though, for when Nancy Reagan came to see him he told her, "Honey, I forgot to duck" (using Jack Dempsey's quip).76
The president was released from the hospital on April 11, and recovered relatively quickly.78 The assassination attempt had great influence on Reagan's popularity; polls indicated his approval rating to be around 73%.79 Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he may go on to fulfill a greater purpose.80
Air traffic controllers' strike
Only a short time into his administration, federal air traffic controllers went on strike, violating a regulation prohibiting government unions from striking.81 Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft Hartley Act, Reagan held a press conference in the White House Rose Garden, where he stated that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated."82 Despite fear from some members of his cabinet over a potential political backlash,83 on August 5, Reagan fired 11,345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order to return to work,84 busting the union.85 According to Charles Craver, a labor law professor at George Washington University Law School, the move gave Americans a new view of Reagan, who "sent a message to the private employer community that it would be all right to go up against the unions."85
"Reaganomics" and the economy
When Reagan entered office, the United States inflation rate stood at 11.83%86 and unemployment at 7.5%.87 Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics and advocated a classical liberal and laissez-faire philosophy,88 seeking to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts.8990 Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer, Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base, offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation, a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve. Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt. His policy of "peace through strength" (also described as "firm but fair") resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40% real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985.91
During Reagan's presidency, federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the bipartisan Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981.92 Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth recovered strongly after the 1982 recession and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of 3.4% per year.93 Unemployment peaked at 10.8% percent in December 1982—higher than any time since the Great Depression then dropped during the rest of Reagan's presidency.90 Sixteen million new jobs were created, while inflation significantly decreased.94 The net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills was a 1% decrease in government revenues.95 Reagan also revised the tax code with the bipartisan Tax Reform Act of 1986.96
The policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment,97 which would then lead to increased economic growth, higher employment and wages. Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics"—the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a "trickle-down" effect to the poor.98 Questions arose as to whether Reagan's policies benefitted the wealthy more than those living in poverty,99 and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles.99
In accordance with Reagan's less-government intervention views, Reagan cut the budgets of non-military100 programs101 including Medicaid, food stamps, federal education programs100 and the EPA.102 Reagan protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare.103 However, his administration attempted to purge tens of thousands of allegedly disabled people from the Social Security disability rolls.104
The administration's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the Savings and Loan crisis.105 It is also suggested, by a minority of Reaganomics critics, that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987,106 but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash.107 In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $700 billion to $3 trillion.108 Reagan described the new debt as the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.108
He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him. Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had contributed to energy crises in the 1970s.109110 The price of oil subsequently dropped, and the 1980s did not see the fuel shortages that the 1970s had.111 Reagan also fulfilled a 1980 campaign promise to repeal the Windfall profit tax in 1988, which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil.112 Some economists, such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert A. Mundell, argue that Reagan's tax policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s.113 Other economists, such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow, argue that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and raised taxes.113
Lebanon and Grenada, 1983
American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational force (MNF) during the Lebanese Civil War who had been earlier deployed by Reagan, were attacked on October 23, 1983. The Beirut barracks bombing resulted in the deaths of 241 American servicemen by suicide bombers. Reagan called the attack "despicable," pledged to keep a military force in Lebanon, and planned to target the Sheik Abdullah barracks in Baalbek, Lebanon, training ground for Hezbollah fighters,114115 but the mission was later aborted. On February 7, 1984, President Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon.
On October 25, 1983, only two days later, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada, where a 1979 coup d'état had established a Marxist-Leninist government aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. On October 13, a faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) led to the intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan also cited the regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. In the first major operation conducted by the U.S. military since the Vietnam War, several days of fighting commenced, resulting in a U.S. victory,116 with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers.117 In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by the Governor-General, U.S. forces withdrew.116
Escalation of the Cold War
- See also: Cold War and Cold War (1979–1985)
Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.118 Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Military91 and implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union: reviving the B-1 bomber program that had been canceled by the Carter administration, and producing the MX "Peacekeeper" missile.119 In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing II missile in West Germany.120 Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti-communist resistance movements in an effort to "rollback" Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia and Latin America.121
Reagan, as well as Britain's prime minister Margaret Thatcher, denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms.123 In a famous address on June 8, 1982 to the British Parliament, Reagan said, "the forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism-Leninism on the ash-heap of history."124 On March 3, 1983, he predicted that communism would collapse, stating, "Communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written."45 In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March 8, 1983, Reagan called the Soviet Union "an evil empire."124 After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 on September 1, 1983, carrying 269 people including U.S. congressman Larry McDonald, Reagan labeled the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned "against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere."125 The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States, and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets, wounding them financially.125
In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a defense project126 that would have used ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles.127 Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible,126128 but disbelief that the technology could ever work led opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars" and argue that the technological objective was unattainable.126 The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have;129 leader Yuri Andropov said it would put "the entire world in jeopardy."130 For those reasons, David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, believes that in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.131
Critics labeled Reagan's foreign policies as aggressive, imperialistic, and chided as "warmongering," though they were supported by leading American conservatives who argued that they were necessary to protect U.S. security interests.129 A reformer, Mikhail Gorbachev, would later rise to power in the Soviet Union in 1985, implementing new policies for openness and reform that were called glasnost and perestroika.
Reagan displayed humor throughout his presidency,132 including one notable joke regarding the Cold War. As a sound check prior to his weekly radio address in August 1984, Reagan made the following gaffe as a way to test the microphone: "My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes."133
1984 presidential campaign
Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas, Texas, on a wave of positive feeling. He proclaimed that it was "morning again in America,"14 in reference to the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the Los Angeles Olympics that summer, among other things. He became the first American president to open an Olympic Games held in the United States.134
Reagan's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale. With questions about Reagan's age, and a weak performance in the first presidential debate, it was questioned whether he was capable to be president for another term.135136 Reagan rebounded in the second debate, and confronted questions about his age, quipping, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience," which generated applause and laughter from members of the audience, and even from Mondale himself.137
That November, Reagan was re-elected, winning 49 of 50 states.138 The president's landslide victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota (by 3800 votes) and the District of Columbia. Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes, the most of any candidate in United States history,139 and received 58.8% of the popular vote to Mondale's 40.6%.138
Second term, 1985–1989
Reagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20, 1985, in a private ceremony at the White House. The public ceremony took place in the Capitol Rotunda the next day, because January 20 fell on a Sunday, thus no public celebration was held. January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington, D.C., and due to the low temperatures and large snowfall the night before, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol.
In 1985, Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. It was determined that the cemetery held the graves of 49 members of the Waffen-SS. Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery "victims," which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to Holocaust victims; Pat Buchanan, Director of Communications under Reagan, argued that the notion was false.140 Now strongly urged to cancel the visit,141 the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl. He attended the ceremony where two military generals laid a wreath.142
The Reagan administration was criticized for its slow response to the growing HIV-AIDS epidemic.143 As thousands became infected with the virus, President Reagan did not increase funding to try and discover cures, rather he downplayed the situation and only acknowledged that it was an issue of concern at the May 31, 1987 Third International Conference on AIDS in Washington.143
War on Drugs
Midway into his second term, Reagan declared more militant policies in the War on Drugs. He said that "drugs were menacing our society" and promised to fight for drug-free schools and workplaces, expanded drug treatment, stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts, and greater public awareness.144145
On October 27, 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $1.7 billion dollars to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses.146 The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population, because of the differences in sentencing for crack and powder cocaine.146 Critics also charged that the administration's policies did little to actually reduce the availability of drugs or crime on the street, while resulting in a great financial and human cost for American society.147 Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use.148149
First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs one of her main priorities by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign, which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying "no." Mrs. Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states, raising awareness about the dangers of drugs and alcohol.150
Challenger disaster
The disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28, 1986 proved a pivotal moment in Reagan's presidency. The shuttle disintegrated 73 seconds after lift off151 and all seven astronauts aboard were killed, including Christa McAuliffe, who was to be the first "teacher in space."151
On the night of the disaster, Reagan delivered a speech, largely written by Peggy Noonan, in which he said the following:
| “ | The future doesn't belong to the fainthearted; it belongs to the brave. The Challenger crew was pulling us into the future, and we'll continue to follow them... We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and 'slipped the surly bonds of Earth' to 'touch the face of God.'152 | ” |
Historians and commentators largely lauded Reagan's speech;131 John Robert Greene, Professor of History at Cazenovia College, said "The defining Reagan moment for me was the Challenger disaster. Ronald Reagan exhibited that quality that I call the 'Chief Soother'."131
Libya bombing
Relationships between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious, beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981. These tensions were later revived in early April 1986, when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque, resulting in the injuries of 63 American military personnel and one death of a serviceman.153 Citing that there was "irrefutable proof" that Libya had directed the terrorist bombing, Reagan authorized the use of force against the country.153 In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the US launched a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya.153 The attack was designed to halt Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi’s ability to export terrorism, offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior."153
The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced, stating, "When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes, we will respond so long as I'm in this office."154 He justified the attack by accusing Libya of direct responsibility for terrorism aimed at the U.S.154
Immigration
In 1986, Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA). The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants, required employers to attest to their employees' immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximately 3 million illegal immigrants who entered the United States prior to January 1, 1982 and had lived in the country continuously. Critics of the act claim that its laws subjecting employers to sanctions were without teeth and that it failed to stem illegal immigration.155 Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, "The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become Americans."156
Iran-Contra affair
